# make > A dependency graph, a topological order, and a comparison of timestamps. `make` has a reputation for being a language with strange rules about tabs. It is not. Strip the syntax away and what is left is two ideas, both small, and both worth building once so the tool stops being mysterious. The first: **the targets form a graph.** `app` needs `main.o` and `util.o`, each of which needs its `.c` file. Building in the right order means visiting a node only after everything it depends on, which is a topological sort. The second: **a timestamp decides whether work happens.** A target is stale if anything it depends on is newer than it is. That single comparison is the entire reason `make` is faster than a shell script that rebuilds everything. ## The program ```zig const std = @import("std"); const Rule = struct { target: []const u8, needs: []const []const u8, /// Stands in for the file's mtime. Higher is newer; 0 means absent. stamp: u64, }; /// Visit dependencies before the thing that depends on them, and refuse to /// loop. This is the whole of make's ordering, and the `visiting` flag is what /// turns an infinite recursion into an error you can report. fn order( rules: []const Rule, target: []const u8, state: []u8, out: *std.ArrayList([]const u8), allocator: std.mem.Allocator, ) !void { const idx = indexOf(rules, target) orelse return; // a source file, not a rule switch (state[idx]) { 2 => return, // already scheduled 1 => return error.CircularDependency, else => {}, } state[idx] = 1; for (rules[idx].needs) |need| try order(rules, need, state, out, allocator); state[idx] = 2; try out.append(allocator, target); } fn indexOf(rules: []const Rule, name: []const u8) ?usize { for (rules, 0..) |rule, i| { if (std.mem.eql(u8, rule.target, name)) return i; } return null; } fn stampOf(rules: []const Rule, name: []const u8, sources: []const Rule) u64 { if (indexOf(rules, name)) |i| return rules[i].stamp; if (indexOf(sources, name)) |i| return sources[i].stamp; return 0; } pub fn main(init: std.process.Init) !void { var buf: [1024]u8 = undefined; var stdout_writer = std.Io.File.stdout().writerStreaming(init.io, &buf); const out = &stdout_writer.interface; var storage: [8192]u8 = undefined; var fba = std.heap.FixedBufferAllocator.init(&storage); const allocator = fba.allocator(); const sources = [_]Rule{ .{ .target = "main.c", .needs = &.{}, .stamp = 30 }, .{ .target = "util.c", .needs = &.{}, .stamp = 10 }, }; const rules = [_]Rule{ .{ .target = "main.o", .needs = &.{"main.c"}, .stamp = 20 }, .{ .target = "util.o", .needs = &.{"util.c"}, .stamp = 20 }, .{ .target = "app", .needs = &.{ "main.o", "util.o" }, .stamp = 25 }, }; // `@splat`, not the `**` repeat operator, which the language dropped. var state: [rules.len]u8 = @splat(0); var scheduled: std.ArrayList([]const u8) = .empty; defer scheduled.deinit(allocator); try order(&rules, "app", &state, &scheduled, allocator); try out.writeAll("build order:\n"); for (scheduled.items) |target| try out.print(" {s}\n", .{target}); // A target is stale when anything it depends on is newer than it is. That // one comparison is the entire reason make is faster than a shell script. try out.writeAll("\nwhat actually needs rebuilding:\n"); for (scheduled.items) |target| { const i = indexOf(&rules, target).?; var stale = false; for (rules[i].needs) |need| { if (stampOf(&rules, need, &sources) > rules[i].stamp) stale = true; } try out.print(" {s: <7} {s}\n", .{ target, if (stale) "rebuild" else "up to date" }); } try out.flush(); } ``` *Runnable: compiled to WebAssembly and executed by CI against Zig master. (`16-unix-tools.make`)* The stamps stand in for file modification times: higher is newer. `main.c` is 30 and `main.o` is 20, so the source has been edited since the object was built. `util.c` is 10 against `util.o` at 20, so that one is current. ## What just happened **The build order put the objects before the binary.** Nothing declared that order. It falls out of visiting dependencies first and appending each target only on the way back out, which is depth-first post-order and is what "topological sort" means when you write it rather than name it. **Only `main.o` needed rebuilding.** Its source is newer than it is. `util.o` is newer than its source, so it was skipped, and this is the whole value proposition: on a large project almost everything is up to date, and the comparison that establishes that is one integer against another. **The `visiting` flag is not bookkeeping, it is the cycle check.** Each target is marked while its dependencies are being visited and marked again when it is done. Meeting a target that is still in the first state means the graph loops, and the program returns `error.CircularDependency` rather than recursing until the stack runs out. Real `make` reports exactly this, and now you know what it noticed. **What the program does not model** is worth naming: once `main.o` is rebuilt, its timestamp becomes *now*, which makes `app` stale in turn. Real `make` recomputes as it goes, so staleness propagates up the graph. The program above reports a single snapshot, which is the honest thing for it to do given it never runs a command. ## Check yourself `make` is famously strict that recipe lines begin with a tab, not spaces. Given what you have just built, is that rule doing any work? Almost none, and its author has said as much. The tab distinguishes a recipe line from a continuation of the rule, which a smarter parser could infer. It survives because changing it would break every Makefile ever written, which is the same reason a great many things in Unix are the way they are. The graph and the timestamps are the design; the tab is an accident that could not be undone. ## If you have written C You have almost certainly written a Makefile without writing `make`, and the translation is direct: a rule's prerequisites are its edges, and `$@` and `$<` are the target and the first prerequisite of the node you are currently at. The one thing a C implementation has to do that this program skips is get the timestamp, with `stat()`, and handle the case where the file is not there at all. A missing target has an mtime of nothing, which has to compare as "older than everything" so the target gets built. Representing that as 0 is exactly what the C version does, and it is the correct simplification. ## Where to go next That is the toolbox. Seven programs, and between them the techniques that keep coming back: a fixed buffer and a streaming loop, a state machine, a search, an ownership decision, a delimiter, a conversion, and a graph. If you want the same treatment of the language itself, [Groundwork](https://www.ziglang.in/learn/systems-from-scratch/) starts from what a byte is. If you would rather build something larger, the [ORM](https://www.ziglang.in/learn/orm/) is one library designed in the open, one decision per chapter.